The Philosophy and Effect of Exercise

By an irrevocable law of physiology growth of brain and body is acquired by exercise. The vital organs are involved as much as are the superficial organs in the benefits that flow from physical activity.  All organic development is along the lines of use.  Nutrition and nervous supply follow absolutely and closely on demand, whatever direction this may take.  All muscles and organs possess a latent potentiality for development, by virtue of which the different parts are capable of increasing in size and strength and if necessity arises, of successfully performing other work in conjunction with their own.  Though supported by its bony framework, the human body owes its power of movement and its beautiful proportions to its muscles and tendons.  All movements in or of the body are accomplished by muscles.  The muscles actually make up the greater part of the weight of the normal body and this should indicate their great importance, as well as the importance of their proper care.

What we may denominate the Law of development may be stated thus:  The development of any part of the body is in direct proportion to the vital currents (Nervous and nutritive) which, by exercise, are brought to bear upon it.  The degree of intensity of muscular effort determines the amount of blood which flows to the muscle.  Vigorous contractions cause more blood to flow to the muscles than do light contractions.  For this reason strength develops in proportion to the intensity and not to the duration of work.  Frequent intense demands upon the strength of a muscle, when not too frequent or too intense, eminently occasion an increase in its power to meet the demand.  We may state as a general law of muscular development that:  intense use produces great development; moderate use, moderate development; little development (nor little use) No use at all, atrophy.

Exercise that is too strenuous or too prolonged is not helpful.  Exercises or activities that are beyond the strength of the performer are so far as benefit is concerned, worse than no exercise altogether.  To derive the greatest benefit from an exercise it should not be continued to the point of extreme fatigue.  Although this is an almost necessary condition in many forms of competitive athletics, it is not conducive to the highest degree of health and strength.  For the same reason, long hours of hard labor do not develop health and strength.  There is a limit to the possibility for the acquirement of strength; but this limit varies much, depending largely upon the general physique of the individual.  Perhaps it is nearer correct to say that the development a man can attain depends on the underlying bone structure.  However, men with small bone structure may have the figure and proportions of an Apollo or a Mercury.

Much is said in many quarters about over-development.  There is no evidence that I can find to justify the belief that over-development is a possibility.  We fail to find a single fact in Nature that can legitimately be claimed to show that man is injured by reaching his maximum degree of physical fitness and development.  Disproportionate development may easily prove hurtful, but this is something else.

Muscular strength has been defined as the ability of muscle to contract with great force, or to bear great strain without yielding or breaking.  This definition omits the element of endurance – the capacity of a muscle or an organism for sustained effort.  The type of exercise demanded to develop these two forms of strength are different and their effects are different.

The effects of exercises of strength are markedly different from exercises of endurance proper.  Strenuous exercises, because they require considerable exertion, cannot be long continued and are not a drain upon vital vigor, as are exercises of endurance.  To perform exercises of endurance the muscles need not be strong, as shown by the fact that frail women often possess more endurance than strong men.  But to be able to lift heavy weights or do heavy work the muscles must be strong.  There is no age of life when hard exercise should be discontinued.  There are conditions of life that render hard exercise inadvisable, dangerous or even impossible; there are times when a prolonged period of rest is needed.  But there is no period of life in which vigorous exercise will not be advantageous.

The frequent practice of any set of series of movements tends to mold the parts employed in the exercise according to the nature of the movements and the positions held while performing them and to train the parts to better perform the particular movements.  In physical education the rule is that, within proper bounds, any form of activity develops the qualities essential for its execution.  To illustrate: forms of activity requiring speed in their execution, develop speed; activities requiring elasticity, develop elasticity; activities requiring coordination, develop coordination; activities requiring skill, develop skill; activities requiring grace, develop grace; activities requiring poise, develop poise; activities requiring strength, develop strength; activities requiring agility, develop agility; activities requiring endurance, develop endurance.  This rule applies to each and all of the muscular qualities one may desire to develop and maintain.  “Do the thing and you shall have the power.”  As one improves physically one finds that the exercises one took at first become easy of performance and it becomes necessary to increase either the vigor or strenuousness of the exercise, the number of repetitions or in some other manner to progress in order to gain further improvement.

Rational progression is essential to all-round effectiveness and to sustained interest.  It is especially important to subjective motor training and no exercise program has much educational value if progression is lacking.  If the individual finds nothing further to learn, or does not see his strength and ability daily increasing, if he does not progress to increasingly difficult tasks, his interest will lag.  Exercise must satisfy the “instinct” for progression even if the purpose of the exercise is only for the sake of organic acceleration.  To get the best results out of exercise, whether we seek to gain greater control over a part, to develop greater strength, to increase our speed, to improve upon grace and poise, to develop greater skill, or to develop any other quality, the principle of progression is of the greatest importance.

The principle that whatever is easy to do is not worth doing is good in physical education as elsewhere.  In mental education we employ the principle of effort constantly progressing in intensity.  There is not so much an increase in the amount of work, but an increased intensity of work.  When the increased intensity ceases, progress ceases.  For instance, it requires effort and concentration to learn bookkeeping.  Its practice is mechanical.  There is no effort and therefore no progress.  Progress is achieved by employing first these exercises that require the least amount of effort, mental or physical, and gradually changing to forms that require greater effort and concentration.  Progression is valuable both in the daily schedule and in the monthly or yearly schedule.  Progression may be from the simple to the complex, from the easy to perform to the difficult, from short periods of exercise to ever increasing lengths of the exercise period, etc.

Progression is based upon increased endurance, increased strength, increased skill, increased suppleness, increased speed, etc.  It is not a matter of becoming “accustomed” to the exercise, but a muscular, nervous and organic improvement.  Progress in exercise is accomplished in a number of ways as follows:

1.  Perhaps the simplest form of progression is that of duration. This consists of increasing the number of times each movement is performed.

2.   The next simple progression is that of changing the velocity of the movement.  Movements that are most easily performed at slow, moderate speed are increased and those done most easily if done speedily are done at slow and still slower speed.

3.   A more complicated form of progression is that of progression by series.  This is accomplished by combining two or more simple movements into a series.  Such a series is that of extending the arms forward, upward, side-ways, and backward.  These movements should progress from the simple to the complex and more complex.

4.   Progression is accomplished by changes in rhythm.  If a movement is done by count, after it has been mastered the rate of speed for all or various parts of the movement is changed.

5.   By shortening the base, progression is accomplished.  The feet constitute the base.  Within certain limits, movements are more easily made with feet apart than with the feet together.  By bringing the feet closer together in the direction of the action the base is shortened.  Bending sideways may be done first with feet apart, then with the feet together, then with heels and toes together.

6.   Progression may be obtained by changing the length of the lever.  The lever may be lengthened by raising the arms.  Trunk bending sideways may be used as an example.  It is easiest to do with arms hanging at the sides.  From this we may progress to sideways bending with the hands on the hips.  It becomes harder if the hands are clasped behind the head and hardest still if the arms are extended upward, that is, over head.  The higher the hands, the longer the lever from the center of motion and raising the arms amounts to raising the mass of weight.

7.   A combination of decreasing base and increasing lever gives additional progress.  To these may be added changes in velocity, rhythm, complexity, etc.  Almost infinite progression is possible, resulting in an almost infinite increase in control.

8.   Progression is gained by going to a statical action.  This consists in placing the body in some attitude which is to be retained while some active movement is performed.

9.   Progression is gained by going from eccentric to concentric to static.  Muscles have four principal forms of contraction: (a) Tonicity, or the at rest or relaxed condition of a muscle in which the muscle is slightly contracted involuntarily, giving the firmness always present in a normal healthy muscle; (b) Concentric contraction, by which the attachments are brought closer together while the muscle works; (c) Eccentric contraction in which the parts move apart, although the muscle is working; and (d) Static contraction (tensing) in which the attachments remain stationary although the muscle is working. 

Examples of these forms of contraction are (a) concentric: lying on the back with the knees held straight, bring the legs and thighs up until they are perpendicular to the body; (b) eccentric: From this position slowly lower the limbs to the floor; (c) static: lying on the back with lower limbs held perpendicular, hold the legs off the floor and abduct or put them through a swimming motion.  The muscles employed to keep the legs from the floor while the movements are performed are in static contraction.

10. Progression is achieved in certain types of movement by changing the movement of weight.  For example, in balance movements, the relation the final position of a movement bears to the line of gravity, as well as its complexity, must be considered.  Changing positions, altering the line of gravity, and calling more muscles into play while in a “balancing” position or movement brings out the highest development of coordination.

All progression is of a two fold nature: (1) from the standpoint of nervous training progression is made from the simplest to the most complex movements; that is from movements requiring the least to those requiring the most concentration and control; (2) from the standpoint of muscular training, progression is from the easiest to the hardest movements.  The second develops increased power, the first increased skill.  Progression may be from exercise to exercise in the same “lesson”, from lesson to lesson in the same “course”.  Progression is from the general to the specific to the general.  In working out a progressive series of movements from the standpoint of control, we begin with those movements that require the least amount of mental effort and gradually pass to those requiring greater mental concentration.

• SYMMETRICAL movements – movements in which both sides of the body perform the same thing – are first because it is easier to control the arms and legs if both arms and both legs perform the same movement.
• UNILATERAL movements – movements of only one side of the body with the other side resting – are next in order.  This requires concentration and localizing of effort.
• BILATERAL movements – movements of both sides of the body, but with each side doing different exercises – follows only after control has reached a certain degree of proficiency.  This requires greater concentration and develops greater control and coordination.

Progression has certain limitations set by the age, sex and intelligence and by the time and means (apparatus, convenience, space and dress) of the individual.  There is, of course, a limit to the amount of force or strength anyone can develop, but there is almost no limit to the control one can attain.  This means that the possibilities of the nervous system are almost limitless while the possibilities of the muscular system are sharply limited.

Civilized modes of living tend to increase sensory more than motor irritability.  The inactive motor nerves undergo degenerative processes while the sensory nerves tend to become irritable.  Exercise tends to maintain normal motor irritability and to maintain the balance of motor and sensory enervation essential to good health.

Nerve tissue must be used and not abused if it is to remain healthy.  Its efficiency improves with use.  The power of the nerves to respond to the will increases with exercises.  Thus muscular activities requiring great concentration improve the brain-nerve-muscle affiliation.  Use of the muscles gives command over the muscular system.  Muscles become the servants of the mind.

Muscular contraction is induced by nerve impulse.  Nerve impulse is controlled by the will.  The stronger the impulse the greater and more forceful the muscular contraction.  In order to raise a heavy weight, powerful enervation of the muscle is required.  The will is called vigorously into action.  Given two men of equal muscular development and equal bony structures, the one with the stronger will, will accomplish more than the other in a feat of strength, because he can send more never impulses to the muscles. 

Men with a large amount of nerve energy can often perform feats of strength that are far beyond the powers of larger and stronger men.  The muscles of men are stronger in proportion to their size than the muscles of animals, chiefly because man has greater nerve force and is able to concentrate his nerve energies to the highest possible degree.  Less nerve energy is required to perform a given movement or feat after muscular coordination is established than before. 

The young, inexperienced mechanic works himself into exhaustion in eight hours and accomplishes much less than the more experienced mechanic who has exerted himself much less.  (Exercise and efficiency).  Exercise develops muscular coordination.  This adds to efficiency and efficiency adds to life.  Considerable nerve energy is required to produce a new movement, but as the movement becomes automatic little nerve energy is required to execute it.

Exercises of strength have little influence on the brain.  They leave the nervous and mental centers in relative repose, affecting the functions of nutrition more than those if enervation.  They increase the size and contractile power of the muscles but do not greatly increase our conscious or even automatic control over them.

One of the objects of good exercise is to suppress all useless and awkward movements and to develop control.  Useless and unskilled movements waste energy.  Efficient coordination is conservation of life.

Coordination is either voluntary or involuntary.  Voluntary coordination is under control of the will and involves the elimination of awkward and involuntary movements often accompanying a movement, and the localization of effort to any given region of the body.  The development of good coordination and isolation of effort enables one to concentrate on the parts used and thus obtain the greatest result from the least effort.  Educational Exercises aim at the cultivation of complete control of the muscular powers.  “Timing”, so much talked about in jumping, pole vaulting, diving, etc., is just another name for coordination.  In these cases there is close coordination between the eye and the muscles.  The eye grasps the situation at a glance, and muscles that are under perfect control act almost automatically in performing the required movements.

Great strength depends as much upon muscular development and coordination as it does upon more bulk or size.  The so-called naturally strong men, those who are strong but who never trained for it, are more often clumsy, bulky and do not know how to use their strength, while the muscles of the trained athlete are under perfect control and are extremely sensitive and obedient to the will.

Most systems of exercise attempt to develop the muscles individually.  Some exercises are for one part of the arm, another for another part of the arm, and so on until the whole body has been exercised piece by piece.  This does not teach the muscles to act together.  Real coordination is not achieved. These exercises are good, but they are not sufficient.

The ideal of physical education is a harmoniously developed physique to serve as a tool under perfect control of the will.  Strong muscles, to be of greatest service to their possessor must “respond readily to volition for power, speed, agility, gentleness or repose”.  It is more important to acquire control of the forces we already have than to develop greater strength.  The average individual has more than sufficient power latent within him if he only knew how to make it serve him.  There is a limit, not only to the absolute force, but to the need of the force possible to everyone, but there is no limit to the possibilities of developing control of powers present or to be acquired, and good control is always of advantage.  Without depreciating the acquirement of great strength, we can agree with this demand for the development of greater control over the strength we possess.

The aim of education exercises is to develop the body into a harmonious whole under perfect control of the will.  It is not to produce great bulk of muscle, but to cause that already present to respond readily to volition; to improve the functional activity of the body; and to counteract and correct the tendencies to abnormal development, especially those resulting from the artificial life of civilization.

All physical exercise is health promoting, but not all such exercise is educational.  To be truly educational, a movement must compel concentration for its performance.  Once the movement has been mastered, so that its execution becomes automatic, it has little educational value.  It is necessary to proceed to a more complex movement.  This is the reason that automatic drills set to music are without educational value.  Drill work is no more educational than the popular dances.  In good exercises, an elementary movement is practiced until it becomes automatic, then we go on to the next, and then the next movement.

Drill work is likely to be performed in a routine manner, with a sense of unavoidable duty with the thoughts on something else and the eyes on the clock.  Drill is valueless when it becomes a meaningless, unthinking process of repetition.  This is as applicable to physical as to mental exercise. Active thought in doing exercise produces best results.

Mass drill or class work is never as desirable as individualized training.  It is never possible to fit mass drill to the needs of all the individuals in the mass.  In drill too, the instructor must adjust the severity and complexity of the drill to the capabilities of the average or even weaker members of the class.   This compels the stronger and more skilled members to go through kindergarten stunts at a time when they should be going on.  Mass drill is a bore to those performing and those observing it.  It has been truly remarked that the fact that so many individuals are performing the same movements is the best evidence that they are easy to perform.

It would be a mistake to assume, from the foregoing, that drill work is without value, or that it does not have a legitimate place in exercises.  Drill work may be defined as group coordination and this is certainly necessary and desirable.  Drill work should be superimposed upon development and not made a substitute for them.